How do Pulse Check sources
perceive the powder cocaine
problem in their communities? Boston is the only community in
which a Pulse Check source (the law
enforcement source) names powder
cocaine as the most widely abused
drug. In Denver, one source (from
non-methadone treatment) considers
both crack and powder cocaine as
that city's most widely abused drugs,
and the other three Pulse Check
sources consider powder cocaine as
the second most widely abused drug
(following marijuana). It is also
considered the second most widely
abused drug by sources in El Paso,
New Orleans, and New York.
Also in Denver, two sources (law
enforcement and epidemiologic) name
powder cocaine as the drug with the
most serious consequences, whether
medically, legally, societally, or otherwise.
In Memphis, too, one source
(non-methadone treatment) puts
powder cocaine into that category.
Has the perception of the
powder cocaine problem
changed between fall 2000 and
spring 2001? Two sources who
named powder cocaine as their
communities' most widely abused drug
during the last Pulse Check reporting
period perceive a change: the
Memphis non-methadone treatment
source believes that crack has replaced
powder cocaine, and the Portland
(ME) law enforcement source believes
that heroin and diverted pharmaceutical
opiates have replaced it. The
Portland law enforcement source also
believes that diverted pharmaceutical
opiates have replaced powder cocaine
as the drug with the most serious consequences.
By contrast, in Memphis, the non-methadone source perceives
that powder cocaine has replaced
crack in causing the most serious
consequences. No sources in any other
Pulse Check cities believe powder
cocaine to be associated with any
new or emerging problems.
POWDER COCAINE: THE DRUG
How available is powder cocaine
across the country? (Exhibit 1)
Powder cocaine is considered widely
available in 18 of the 21 Pulse Check
cities (the 3 exceptions are St. Louis,
Sioux Falls, and Washington, DC), according to nearly two-thirds (27 of
41) of law enforcement, epidemiologic,
and ethnographic sources who
discussed this question. Ten sources in
eight cities describe it as "somewhat
available": Boston and Philadelphia
in the Northeast; Baltimore and
Washington, DC, in the South; St.
Louis and Sioux Falls in the Midwest;
and Honolulu and Seattle in the West.
Only four sources consider the drug
not very available: two in the West
(Billings and Los Angeles), and two in
the Midwest (Chicago and St. Louis).
Exhibit 1.
How available is powder cocaine across the 21 Pulse Check cities?
According to law enforcement sources (N=21)...
According to epidemiologists and ethnographers (N=21)...*
*The epidemiologic source in Columbia did not provide this information.
Has powder cocaine availability
changed? (Exhibit 2) Powder
cocaine availability remained stable
between fall 2000 and spring 2001, according
to the majority
(18 of 20) of Pulse
Check law enforcement
sources who discussed
this question.
Only two of those
sources perceive an
increase (in Columbia,
SC, and in
Portland, ME), and
no declines are
reported. Trends are
more mixed, however,
according to
the 20 epidemiologic
and ethnographic
sources
who discussed
this question:
powder cocaine
availability
increased in 5 sites, declined in 5, and
remained stable in
10. Regionally, trends
are mixed: in the
Northeast, stable
trends are reported in
New York,
Philadelphia, and
Portland, while a
decline is reported in
Boston; in the South,
supply declined in El
Paso, Miami, and
Washington, DC,
remained stable in Memphis and New Orleans, and increased in Birmingham; in the Midwest,
availability increased in Chicago and
Detroit and remained stable in Sioux
Falls and St. Louis; and in the West,
availability increased
in Denver and Seattle
and remained stable in
Billings and Los
Angeles.
Exhibit 2.
How has powder cocaine
availability changed (fall
2000 vs spring 2001)?*
L Law enforcement respondents
E Epidemiologic/ethnographic
respondents
*The Boston and Columbia
epidemiologic/ethnographic
sources and the Memphis law
enforcement source did not
respond.
What are powder
cocaine prices and
purity levels across
the country?
(Exhibit 3) Grams
and "eightballs"
(1/8 ounce) are the sales units
most commonly
reported by
law enforcement,
epidemiologic,
and ethnographic
sources. Grams range in price
from a low of $28
in New York to a
high of $150 in New
Orleans, with $100
the most frequently
reported price.
Eightballs sell for as
low as $80 in Seattle
and as high as $400 in
Memphis. Gram-level
purity ranges from a
low of 20 percent in
Denver and Washington, DC, to a high of 90 percent in
Detroit and Miami.
| How much powder cocaine can $10 buy?
In several cities, law enforcement, epidemiologic, and ethnographic sources report units
of sale, often called "dime bags," that sell for $10 apiece:
- "A little cellophane bag" in Baltimore
- 0.1–0.2 grams in Denver
- 0.1 gram in Detroit
- 0.5 gram in New Orleans
- 0.25 gram in Seattle
- 150–150 milligrams in Washington, DC
|
Exhibit 3.
How much do grams and "eightballs"
of powder cocaine cost in
17 Pulse Check cities?*
| City |
Price |
Purity |
 |
Boston,
MA
|
$60 |
50–60% |
|
New
York, NY
|
$28–$30 |
75% |
|
Philadelphia,
PA
|
$100–$125 |
60–80% |
|
Portland,
ME
|
$80–$100 |
30–70% |
 |
Birmingham,
AL
|
$100 |
NR |
|
Columbia,
SC
|
$100 |
NR |
|
Memphis,
TN
|
$100 |
40–50% |
|
Miami,
FL
|
$40–$60 |
80–90% |
|
New
Orleans, LA
|
$25–$150 |
NR |
|
Washington,
DC
|
$100 |
20–60% |
 |
Chicago,
IL
|
$125 |
NR |
|
Detroit,
MI
|
$70–$125 |
60–90% |
|
Sioux
Falls, SD
|
$80–$100 |
NR |
 |
Denver,
CO
|
$100 |
20–50% |
|
Honolulu,
HI
|
$100–$120 |
NR |
|
Los
Angeles, CA
|
$80 |
80–85% |
|
Seattle,
WA
|
$80–$100 |
57–58% |
| City |
Price |
Purity |
|
Boston,
MA
|
$200–$250 |
60% |
|
Portland,
ME
|
$250 |
50% |
|
Columbia,
SC
|
$250–$300 |
NR |
|
Memphis,
TN
|
$350–$400 |
40–50% |
|
Sioux
Falls, SD
|
$275 |
NR |
|
Seattle,
WA
|
$80–$100 |
NR |
Sources: Law enforcement, epidemiologic, and
ethnographic respondents
*Respondents in Baltimore, Billings, El Paso,
and St. Louis did not provide this information.
| Then and Now: Powder cocaine
prices and purity, fall 2000 vs
spring 2001
Powder cocaine prices and purity levels
remained relatively stable since the last
Pulse Check reporting period, according
to law enforcement sources, with only
two exceptions: the Los Angeles source
notes an increase in the gram price
(from $70 to $80) attributable to market
fluctuation, while the El Paso
source notes a drop in the price of a
"hit" (weight unknown), from $10 to
$3. The El Paso epidemiologic source
confirms a price drop, noting that powder
cocaine, like heroin, is now cheaper
and more abundant on the American
side of the border than on the Mexican
side. Again, these changes are apparently
the result of competition for the market
by the same three different cartels
involved in the heroin trade. Similarly,
in the Northeast, the New York ethnographic
source notes that high availability
and purity levels are allowing dealers
to sell three separate qualities: pure
(the most expensive); semi-pure (medium
priced); and compressed (the least
expensive). Also, because powder
cocaine is so plentiful and cheap in
New York, some crack users are buying
powder cocaine to snort it, freebase it,
or mix their own crack. |
What adulterants are added to
powder cocaine? In addition to
baking soda, which is a standard
ingredient added to powder cocaine
to make crack, Pulse Check law
enforcement, epidemiologic, and
ethnographic sources cite several
adulterants, including crystalline
stereoisomeric cyclic alcohols (such as
inositol and mannitol) in Columbia
(SC), El Paso, Honolulu, and Miami.
Other adulterants mentioned include
lactose in Boston, "any powder" in
Miami and Portland (ME), and baby
laxatives, vitamin B, and vitamin C in
Memphis. The Detroit law enforcement source reports that powder
cocaine might be mixed with other
drugs, such as heroin.
How is powder cocaine referred
to across the country? (Exhibit 4)
As in the case of crack, users in the
South refer to powder cocaine with a
wider variety of slang names than
users in the other three regions.
Crack and powder cocaine names are
not interchangeable in most cities.
How is powder cocaine packaged
and marketed? Powder cocaine is
generally packaged in plastic bags of
some sort—whether cellophane,
glassine, coin, zipper type, heat
sealed, or even just the torn-off corner
of a sandwich bag (as is the case
in Columbia, SC)—according to law
enforcement, epidemiologic, and
ethnographic sources in all but one
Pulse Check city. Los Angeles is the
exception: that city's law enforcement
source reports that the drug is sold
only in "bindles." Bindles—foldover,
stapled, knotted, or taped packages
made of plain paper, cellophane,
glassine, magazine paper, dollar bills,
or lottery tickets—are reported in several other cities as well: New York
in the Northeast; Baltimore, El Paso,
and Memphis (where folded pieces of
paper are called "pony packs") in the
South; Chicago, Detroit, and St.
Louis in the Midwest; and Honolulu,
Los Angeles (as mentioned above),
and Seattle in the West. Other
methods of packaging include tin or
aluminum foil (in Detroit, New York,
and Washington, DC), compressed
bricks (in Billings and New York),
balloons (in Denver and El Paso),
vials (in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and
Seattle), and glue tubes (in Denver).
In Billings, the law enforcement
source reports that plastic bags containing
powder cocaine are sometimes
inserted into perfume containers or
motor oil cans.
| "Retro" packaging for powder
cocaine: Back to the Seventies?
One dealer in New York informed the
Pulse Check ethnographic source, "I'm
packaging coke in sexy magazine
paper, like Playboy, like in the
Seventies." He also stated that "coke
keeps better in the magazine paper
than in plastic or aluminum." |
Exhibit 4.
How is powder cocaine referred to across different regions of the country?
Sources: Law enforcement, treatment, epidemiologic, and ethnographic respondents
In some cities, dealers add logos,
insignias, or pictures to the packaging.
Such is the case in three southern
cities: Memphis (logos on baggies
sold in head shops), Miami (brand
name insignia), and New Orleans
(pictures of horses, cats, and stars on
bags). Logos in New Orleans reportedly
change often. In Chicago, kilo
packages sometimes have cartoon
characters stamped on the wrappers,
and sometimes the inner and outer
wrappers have different cartoon
stamps. In Denver, too, wrappers
have various logos, such as scorpions
and stars.
POWDER COCAINE: THE SELLERS
| Then and Now:
How have powder cocaine sellers
and sales changed across the
country (fall 2000 vs spring 2001)?
Only one notable change is noted since
the previousPulse Check reporting
period: in New York, powder cocaine
dealers have added ecstasy to the many
other drugs they sell. Elsewhere, the
powder cocaine sales market has
remained generally stable. |
How are powder cocaine sellers
organized? In only three cities do
law enforcement sources report that
powder cocaine sales operate predominantly
within an organized
structure, such as a gang: Birmingham
in the South, and Billings and Seattle
in the West. Both independent and
organized sales structures are reported
in Chicago, El Paso, New Orleans,
Los Angeles, and Portland, ME (loose
networks, not ganglike). In every other
Pulse Check city, law enforcement
sources report that powder cocaine
dealers operate independently. By
contrast, as in the case of heroin and
crack, epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources generally categorize powder cocaine dealers as affiliated with some
sort of organized structure. Independent
dealers are mentioned only in
Boston, Birmingham, Memphis, and
Denver. In Boston, where both types
of operations are reported, those who
are organized tend to be Dominican
people who are part of a larger distribution
network.
How old are street-level powder
cocaine sellers? All but four law
enforcement sources name young
adults (18–30 years) as the predominant
sellers of powder cocaine. In El
Paso and Portland (ME), young adults
and adults older than 30 are equally
likely to sell the drug. In Los Angeles,
both young adults and adolescents are
named as the primary sellers. And in
Philadelphia, older adults predominate.
Epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources are even more in agreement
that young adults are the predominant
sellers of powder cocaine. Only
two report otherwise. In Boston, both
young and older adults are likely to
sell the drug. And, in Chicago, disturbingly,
the primary sellers are
reportedly adolescents.
What other drugs do powder
cocaine dealers sell? (Exhibit 5)
New York is the only Pulse Check site
in the Northeast where law enforcement,
epidemiologic, and ethnographic
sources report polydrug sales
by powder cocaine dealers—sometimes
as many as four additional
drugs (marijuana, crack cocaine,
heroin, and ecstasy). In the West, by
contrast, polydrug sales are reported in every site. Sources in the South and
Midwest, however, paint a mixed
picture, with dealers in some cities
engaged in multiple drug sales and
dealers in other cities selling only
powder cocaine. Overall, marijuana is
reported in 11 cities, followed by
crack and heroin (in 7 cities each).
Methamphetamine is mentioned in
only four cities (three in the West), as
is ecstasy. Additionally, the Detroit epidemiologic
source reports that some
powder cocaine dealers also sell LSD.
The only change in this aspect of the
sales scene is reported in New York,
where ecstasy sales by powder cocaine
dealers are a new phenomenon.
Exhibit 5.
What other drugs do powder cocaine dealers sell?*
| City |
Marijuana |
Heroin |
Crack
Cocaine |
Methamphetamine |
Ecstasy |
No
Other Drugs Sold |
| LE |
E |
LE |
E |
LE |
E |
LE |
E |
LE |
E |
LE |
E |
|
Boston,
MA
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 |
|
|
New
York, NY
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Philadelphia,
PA
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Portland,
ME
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Baltimore,
MD
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Birmingham,
AL
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Columbia,
SC
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
El
Paso, TX
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Memphis,
TN
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Miami,
FL
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
New
Orleans, LA
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Washington,
DC
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Chicago,
IL
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Detroit,
MI
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
St.
Louis, MO
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sioux
Falls, SD
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Billings,
MT
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Denver,
CO
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Honolulu,
HI
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Los
Angeles, CA
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Seattle,
WA
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sources: Law enforcement (LE) and epidemiologic and ethnographic (E) respondents
*Epidemiologic and ethnographic sources in Billings, Columbia, El Paso, Honolulu, Los Angeles,
Philadelphia, Portland, St. Louis, Seattle, and Washington, DC, did not provide this information.
Do powder cocaine sellers use
their own drug? Law enforcement
sources in Billings, Boston, Sioux
Falls, and Washington, DC, believe
that powder cocaine sellers are very
likely to use their own drug. In nearly
every other Pulse Check city, they
describe these sellers as "somewhat
likely" to use it. Only in Denver and
Miami do law enforcement sources
believe that powder cocaine dealers
are not very likely to use their drug.
Epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources in four cities, all in the South
(Baltimore, Birmingham, El Paso, and
Memphis), believe that powder
cocaine sellers are very likely to use
their own drug. Independent dealers
in Boston are also very likely to use
their own powder cocaine, but dealers
affiliated with an organization in
that city are not likely to do so at all.
The Detroit source considers sellers
somewhat likely to use their own
drug. The remaining sources who discussed
this topic believe that this
practice is not very likely.
What type of crimes are powder
cocaine sellers involved in? All
but three Pulse Check law enforcement
sources believe that cocaine sellers
are very likely or somewhat likely
to be involved in crime. The exceptions
are in Columbia (SC), St. Louis,
and Washington, DC, where dealer
involvement in crime is considered
not very likely. The majority of the
responding sources (14 out of 20)
name nonviolent crime, and half (10)
name violent crime (less so than for
crack). Specifically, gang-related activity
is mentioned in nine cities (Boston
in the Northeast; Chicago in the
Midwest; Baltimore, Birmingham,
Memphis, and New Orleans in the
South; and Billings, Los Angeles, and
Seattle in the West), while prostitution
is mentioned in eight (Boston,
Philadelphia, and Portland in the
Northeast; Birmingham, Memphis,
and New Orleans in the South; and
Denver and Honolulu in the West).
The nonviolent crimes specified
include burglaries, auto break-ins,
and shoplifting in Columbia; money
laundering in Miami; and aiding illegal
aliens in El Paso.
Epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources in the South express varied
opinions on whether powder cocaine
sellers are involved in crime. Those in
Baltimore, El Paso, and Miami believe
that very likely to be the case, while
those in Memphis and New Orleans
consider it somewhat likely, and those
in Birmingham and Washington, DC,
consider it not very likely. The most
commonly named activities are violent
crime and gang-related crimes (in
Detroit and in four southern cities),
nonviolent crime (in Honolulu and
four southern cities), and prostitution
(in Boston and in three southern cities). Domestic violence is
mentioned in El Paso, and drug
rape is mentioned in Miami.
Where is powder cocaine sold?
(Exhibit 6) In many Pulse Check
cities, street-level powder cocaine
sales, like heroin and crack sales, take
place in central city areas, as reported
in the last Pulse Check. However, as
also reported in the last Pulse Check,
suburban areas are frequently mentioned
as well, more so than for heroin
or crack. Specifically, both suburban
and central city locations are
named by law enforcement sources in
seven sites: Miami and New Orleans
in the South; Detroit and Sioux Falls
in the Midwest; and Denver, Los
Angeles, and Seattle in the West.
Furthermore, areawide sales (spanning
central city, suburban, and rural
areas) are reported in the Northeast
(Boston, New York, and Portland)
and the South (Birmingham and
Memphis). In El Paso, the suburbs,
exclusively, are named as the likeliest
location for powder cocaine sales.
According to epidemiologic and
ethnographic sources who discussed
this question, central city areas are
the predominant sales locations in
Baltimore, Memphis, New Orleans,
New York, and Washington, DC.
Suburban areas are named in Detroit,
Miami, and Sioux Falls. Both types of
areas are named in Boston, Chicago,
Birmingham, and El Paso. In Denver,
sales occur in all three types of city
locations (including rural areas).
Powder cocaine is sold both indoors
and outdoors, according to the majority
(14 of 21) of law enforcement
sources. However, indoor sales locations
are more frequent in Chicago,
Detroit, Portland (ME), and Seattle, while outdoor locations are more frequent
in Miami, Philadelphia, and
Sioux Falls. Epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources similarly report both
types of locations in Chicago,
Baltimore, Denver, El Paso, Memphis,
and New Orleans. Indoor locations,
however, are more frequent in
Birmingham, Detroit, Miami, New
York, and Sioux Falls, while outdoor
locations are more frequent in
Washington, DC.
The specific settings for powder
cocaine sales are as varied as those for
heroin and crack. Private residences,
public housing, and clubs are named as
sales sites by law enforcement, epidemiologic,
and ethnographic sources
in nearly every Pulse Check city. Cars
and parties are the next most common settings, followed by college campuses,
schools, and raves. No rave sales
are reported in the Midwest. Crack
houses are mentioned in only 10
cities, predominantly in the Northeast
and the South. Supermarket areas are
also mentioned in 10 cities, but none
are in the Midwest.
Exhibit 6. Where is street-level powder cocaine sold and used?*
See larger version of Exhibit 6
POWDER COCAINE: THE USERS
How old are powder cocaine
users? Young adults (18–30 years)
are the predominant powder cocaine
users in 10 of 20 Pulse Check cities,
according to responding epidemiologic
and ethnographic sources. People
older than 30 are more likely to use
the drug in nine cities, mainly in the
South (Baltimore, Memphis, Miami,
New Orleans, and Washington, DC) as well as in Boston, Chicago,
Denver, and Seattle. In Detroit, both
younger and older adults are equally
likely to use the drug.
Findings are even more dramatic in
non-methadone treatment programs:
young adults are the age group likeliest
to use powder cocaine in nearly
every Pulse Check city. There are only
five exceptions. Young adults and
older adults alike are the predominant
users in Philadelphia. Older
adults are more predominant in
Denver. Young adults and adolescents
are equally predominant in Los
Angeles. And adolescents are actually
the most likely to use powder cocaine
in Columbia (SC) and one of the
Sioux Falls programs.
| Then and Now:
How have powder cocaine users changed across the country (fall 2000 vs spring 2001)?
According to epidemiologic and ethnographic sources.... |
| In five Pulse Check cities, more
younger people—sometimes
adolescents—are reportedly using
powder cocaine: | - Birmingham, AL: Young adults are the most likely to use powder cocaine, but the drug is
becoming trendier among adolescents, who are moving away from crack.
- Detroit, MI: Young adults (18–30 years) have been increasingly using powder cocaine, so
that they now equal older adults (>30 years) as the groups most likely to use the drug.
- Los Angeles, CA: Young adults are the most likely to use powder cocaine, reflecting a slight
resurgence in use among "business person types."
- Sioux Falls, SD: Young adults are the most likely to use powder cocaine, but an increase is
reported among adolescents, particularly females.
- Washington, DC: While older adults (>30 years) remain most likely to use powder cocaine,
the younger adult (18–30 years) group is increasing.
|
| A few reported shifts reflect a spread
to the suburbs and to different racial/ethnic and socioeconomic groups:
| - Portland, ME: Anecdotal data suggest that powder cocaine use might be spreading from the
central city into the suburbs.
- Washington, DC: While Blacks remain the racial/ethnic group most likely to use powder
cocaine, Whites have been increasingly using the drug. Likewise, powder cocaine users are
predominantly lower SES central city residents, but use is reportedly increasing among middle
SES suburbanites.
|
| Shifting use patterns are reported in
four cities: | - Columbia, SC: A slight shift to injection is noted, but snorting still predominates.
- Los Angeles, CA: Some resurgence of injection (with no other drugs) is reported, but snorting
still predominates. Also, a new combination is reported: powder cocaine plus ecstasy.
- Portland, ME: Smoking is increasing, but snorting still predominates.
- Washington, DC: While powder cocaine is usually injected (in speedballs), snorting has been
increasing, particularly in nightclubs, bars, and private parties. Such locations are emerging
settings for powder cocaine use. However, the predominant settings remain crack houses,
private residences, public housing developments, and cars.
|
According to treatment sources…
The number of novice users of
powder cocaine (any drug treatment
client who has recently begun using
the drug) has increased among
clients in several programs in
five cities: | - Chicago, IL (methadone)
- Columbia, SC (methadone and non-methadone)
- El Paso, TX (methadone and non-methadone)
- Memphis, TN (non-methadone)
- New York, NY (non-methadone)
|
| Conversely, novice use has declined
among clients in non-methadone
programs in two cities: |
|
Methadone treatment clients who use
powder cocaine tend to be older than
their counterparts in non-methadone
treatment. People older than 30 are
named as the predominant user group
in seven cities (Boston, Chicago,
Detroit, Los Angeles, and Washington,
DC), while younger adults are
named in five (Boston, Columbia,
Denver, El Paso, and New Orleans).
Are there any gender differences
in who uses powder cocaine?
Epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources generally agree that males are
more likely than females to use powder
cocaine. In this respect, powder
cocaine users resemble heroin users
(who are more likely to be males)
rather than crack users (who are
equally likely to be males and females
in many cities). In three Pulse Check
cities, however, males and females are
equally likely to use the drug: New
York, Portland (ME), and Sioux Falls.
Furthermore, the gender of powder
cocaine users is sometimes related to
their age. In Detroit, for example,
older (>30 years) powder cocaine
users are predominantly males, but
the younger adult (18–30 years) user
group is evenly split between the
genders.
Treatment sources, by contrast, paint
a picture that includes more females.
Women and men are equally likely to
use powder cocaine in nine nonmethadone
programs (in Chicago,
Los Angeles, Seattle, Philadelphia,
Washington, DC, and both programs
in Billings and Sioux Falls) and six
methadone programs (in Boston,
Columbia [SC], Chicago, Detroit,
Denver, and Seattle). Moreover, in
the Los Angeles methadone program,
female powder cocaine users outnumber
males.
Is any racial/ethnic group more
likely to use powder cocaine? (Exhibit 7) Powder cocaine users,
compared with crack users, are more
likely to be White, as reported by
both epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources and non-methadone treatment
sources; conversely, they are less
likely to be Black than crack users. As
reported in the last Pulse Check, their
racial/ethnic breakdowns are more
similar to those of heroin users than
to those of crack users.
Regionally, according to epidemiologic
and ethnographic sources, the South is
the only region with a mix of racial/
ethnic groups as the predominant powder cocaine users: Blacks are
named in four cities, Whites in three,
and Hispanics in one (Miami). The
other three regions seem to have predominantly
White users in every city
except Chicago, where Blacks are the
predominant group. Non-methadone
treatment sources give slightly different
regional breakdowns: Black users
seem to be more concentrated in the
Midwest than in the other regions,
while Whites generally tend to be the
predominant user group elsewhere.
Hispanics, however, are considered
the likeliest racial/ethnic group to use
powder cocaine in El Paso and
Miami, and they are about equal to
Whites and Blacks in Philadelphia
and Los Angeles.
Exhibit 7.
What racial/ethnic group is most likely to use specific drugs?*
| City |
Heroin |
Crack |
Powder
Cocaine |
| E |
N |
E |
N |
E |
N |
|
Boston, MA |
White |
White |
Black |
White |
White |
White |
| New York,
NY |
White |
White |
NR |
NR |
NR |
NR |
| Philadelphia,
PA |
White |
Black/
Hispanic |
Black |
All |
White |
All |
| Portland,
ME |
White |
White |
White |
White |
White |
White |
|
Baltimore,
MD |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
White |
| Birmingham,
AL |
Black/White |
Black |
Black/White |
Black |
Black/White |
White |
| Columbia,
SC |
Black/White |
NR |
Black |
White |
Black |
White |
| El Paso,
TX |
Hispanic |
Hispanic |
Black |
All |
White |
Hispanic |
| Memphis,
TN |
White |
NR |
White |
Black |
Black |
Black |
| Miami, FL |
White |
Hispanic |
Black |
Black |
Hispanic |
Hispanic |
| New Orleans, LA |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
White |
NR |
| Washington, DC |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
|
Chicago,
IL |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
| Detroit,
MI |
White |
Black |
White |
Black |
White |
Black |
| St. Louis,
MO |
Black |
Black |
Black |
Black |
White |
Black/White |
| Sioux Falls,
SD |
White |
NR |
White |
Black |
White |
Black/White |
|
| Billings,
MT |
White |
White |
White |
White/
American Indian |
White |
White |
| Denver, CO |
White |
White |
White |
Black |
White |
Black |
| Honolulu,
HI |
White |
White |
White |
NR |
White |
White |
| Los Angeles,
CA |
Hispanic |
Hispanic |
Black |
All |
White |
All |
| Seattle,
WA |
White |
NR |
Black |
White/
Hispanic |
White |
White |
Sources: Epidemiologic/ethnographic (E) and non-methadone treatment (N) respondents
*Shaded boxes indicate that a given drug-using population is overrepresented relative to that
city's general population. Not all sources, however, had this information available.
What is the most common
socioeconomic background of
powder cocaine users? (Exhibit 8)
Low and middle SES backgrounds are
reported approximately equally by
epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources in their descriptions of powder
cocaine users–unlike their
descriptions of heroin and crack
users, which tend to be more on the
"low" side. The only exceptions are
in New Orleans and St. Louis, where
sources describe powder cocaine users
as "middle to high" SES, and in
Detroit, where users come from all
backgrounds. No regional patterns
are evident. Similarly, methadone
treatment sources are split about
evenly in the two responses. Nonmethadone
treatment sources, by
contrast, tend to name low SES
groups more frequently (15 of 22
respondents).
Where do powder cocaine users
tend to reside? Suburban areas are
named as the predominant place of
residence for powder cocaine users by
five epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources (in Boston, Los Angeles,
Miami, St. Louis, and Sioux Falls).
Additionally, users are equally likely
to reside in either the central city or
the suburbs in New Orleans and
Seattle; they reside predominantly in
rural areas in El Paso; and all three
types of areas are named in Detroit.
The remaining 12 epidemiologic and
ethnographic sources, however,
believe that powder cocaine users
reside, for the most part, in central
city areas. In Baltimore, the ethnographic
source points out that while
most powder cocaine users reside in
the central city, some suburban
residents purchase their drug in the
central city "because the suburbs have
no open air markets." Similarly, in
Portland, ME, users continue to reside predominantly in the central
city, but anecdotal data suggest that
use might be spreading to the suburbs.
Similarly, powder cocaine users in
treatment generally tend to live in
central city areas, but many also live
in the suburbs, particularly in the
South. Among 21 responding nonmethadone
treatment sources, 10
name central city areas as the likeliest
place of residence, 7 name the suburbs
(in Birmingham, Columbia, El
Paso, and Memphis in the South, and Honolulu and Seattle in the West), 2
name rural areas (in both Sioux Falls
programs), and 2 name all locations
throughout the area (in Billings and
St. Louis). According to responding
methadone treatment sources, central
city places of residence are more
common in Boston, Birmingham,
Chicago, Detroit, El Paso, Los
Angeles, and Washington, DC, while
the suburbs are more common in the
second Boston program and in
Columbia (SC), Denver, and New
Orleans. In Los Angeles and Seattle,
non-methadone clients who use powder
cocaine are equally likely to live
in central city and suburban areas.
Exhibit 8.
What is the predominant socioeconomic status of powder cocaine users?*
*This information was not provided by the ethnographic source in New York, the non-methadone
treatment sources in New York and one of the Billings programs, and by the methadone treatment
sources in Honolulu, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, Portland, and St. Louis.
**Information was provided from two methadone programs in Boston and two non-methadone
programs in Sioux Falls.
SES Group
How do powder cocaine users
take their drug? Snorting is the
primary route of administration for
powder cocaine, according to the vast
majority of epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources, with a few notable
exceptions: injecting (as part of a
speedball) is cited as more common
in Philadelphia and Washington, DC,
and smoking is as common as snorting
in Honolulu. In some cities, route
of administration varies with age. For
example, in Detroit, young adult
(18–30 years) powder cocaine users
tend to snort the drug, while the
older (>30 years) user group is
equally likely to snort and smoke it.
Epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources report three changes in cities
where snorting still predominates: a
shift towards smoking in Portland
(ME), some resurgence of injection in
Los Angeles (with no other drugs),
and a slight shift to injection in
Columbia (SC). Conversely, in
Washington, DC, where injection
predominates, snorting has been
increasing.
| What motivates different age
groups to choose snorting over
injecting?
In Baltimore, where speedballing is common,
the ethnographic source explains
that "street-knowledgeable folks tell
how inserting a needle in the skin produces
abscesses, so they are more likely
to snort, especially with the increased
potency. For newcomers, fear of HIV is
a deterrent to needle use." |
Non-methadone treatment sources
concur that snorting is generally the
primary route of administration for
powder cocaine, but, again, some
exceptions are noteworthy. Smoking
is the primary route at the programs
in Denver and Honolulu. Smoking
equals snorting as the primary route
in Baltimore and Los Angeles. And
injecting equals snorting as the primary
route in Billings. Not surprisingly,
injecting is mentioned as a primary
route of administration by powder
cocaine users in some methadone
programs, as in Boston, Los Angeles,
and Seattle. Moreover, the El Paso
methadone treatment source reports
that powder cocaine users are likely
to either smoke or inject the drug.
What other drugs do powder
cocaine users take? Epidemiologic
and ethnographic sources report that
powder cocaine users also consume a
variety of other drugs, sometimes in
combination, and sometimes sequentially.
For example, powder cocaine is
often taken as part of a "speedball"
combination with heroin, as reported
in New York, Philadelphia, and
Portland in the Northeast; Memphis
in the South; Chicago and Sioux Falls
in the Midwest; and Denver and
Seattle in the West. In Portland,
diverted OxyContin® is sometimes
used instead of heroin in this type of speedball. Marijuana is frequently
smoked by powder cocaine users in
many cities (sometimes sequentially,
sometimes laced together), as reported
in Boston, Columbia (SC), Detroit,
Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Sioux
Falls. Diverted benzodiazepines are
mentioned by sources in Boston, El
Paso (alprazolam, or Xanax®), and
St. Louis (diazepam). As part of the
club drug scene, powder cocaine is
sometimes combined with ecstasy in El
Paso; with ecstasy and a whole gamut
of club drugs in Miami; and with
ecstasy, GHB, or both in Birmingham.
Non-methadone treatment sources in
Baltimore, Birmingham, Chicago,
Denver, and Philadelphia similarly
report that powder cocaine is sometimes
combined with heroin.
Marijuana is cited by non-methadone
treatment sources in Columbia (SC),
Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles,
Memphis, and Sioux Falls (where the
source specifies that it is laced in with
the powder cocaine). The combination
of powder cocaine and ecstasy is
mentioned in four programs: in
Billings; in Birmingham, where this
phenomenon first appeared around a
year ago; in Columbia, where the
drugs are specified as a club drug
combination; and in Portland, ME,
where the use of this combination has
increased. Finally, powder cocaine is
sometimes combined with methamphetamine
in the West, as reported by
non-methadone treatment sources in
Billings and Honolulu.
Nearly every methadone treatment
source, again not surprisingly, reports
that powder cocaine is sometimes
combined with heroin. Additionally,
diverted benzodiazepines are sometimes
taken either together with
powder cocaine or afterwards to
mitigate the side effects, as noted at programs in Boston, Columbia (SC),
and Seattle. The El Paso methadone
treatment source adds that some
clients also use "roche" (pronounced
ro-cha), presumably the benzodiazepine
flunitrazepam (Rohypnol),
brought in from Mexico.
Where and with whom is powder
cocaine used? (Exhibit 6) Powder
cocaine is usually used indoors, in
private, and in small groups among
friends. Indoor use is cited by every
epidemiologic and ethnographic
source except in Washington, DC,
where both indoor and outdoor use
are equally common. The Baltimore
ethnographic source notes seasonal
increases in outdoor use as the
weather improves, as is the case with
heroin use. Private, as opposed to
public, use is cited by all the sources
but three: in Birmingham, El Paso,
and Washington, DC, powder cocaine
is used both in public and in private.
Only three sources—in New York,
Miami, and Los Angeles—report that
the drug is used while alone, rather
than in small groups among friends.
Similarly, among non-methadone
treatment sources, only rare reports
are given for outdoor use (only in
Honolulu, Los Angeles, and Boston),
public use (only in Honolulu and
Seattle, although both private and
public use are reported in Billings, Los
Angeles, Memphis, and Washington,
DC), or solo use (only in Boston,
although both solo and group use
is reported in Memphis and
Philadelphia).
Private residences, by far, are the
most common settings for powder
cocaine use, according to epidemiologic
and ethnographic sources (as
shown previously, in exhibit 6) as
well as non-methadone treatment
sources. The other most common
settings are clubs, parties, and cars. A
few unusual use settings are noted by
epidemiologic and ethnographic
sources. For example, in Portland,
ME, powder cocaine is sometimes
used on boats (during long fishing
trips) and in the woods. In Miami, it
is used in restaurant kitchens. And in
Baltimore, like heroin and crack,
powder cocaine is sometimes used
in abandoned row houses (abandominiums)
and fast-food restaurant
bathrooms.
Overall, any specific setting is usually
more likely to be a sales site than a use
site for powder cocaine, according to
law enforcement, epidemiologic, and
ethnographic sources. Schools are a
particular case in point: in 11 cities,
they are reported as a place where
dealers sell powder cocaine but not as
a place where users take it. Only in
Baltimore and El Paso are schools
mentioned as settings for both sales
and use. Similarly, public housing
developments and the areas around
supermarkets are named much more
frequently as places where sales,
rather than use, occur. In a few cases,
however, the opposite holds true.
For example, in Portland, ME, three
settings named as use sites (clubs,
public housing, and parties) are not
mentioned as sales sites. Similarly, in
Chicago, Detroit, and Los Angeles,
powder cocaine is used but not sold
in parks.
